habenula <--> happiness and sadness
habenula <--> happiness and sadness
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc...52289521000734 (Dissociable roles of the nucleus accumbens core and shell subregions in the expression and extinction of conditioned fear)
The nucleus accumbens (NAc), consisting of core (NAcC) and shell (NAcS) sub-regions, has primarily been studied as a locus mediating the effects of drug reward and addiction. However, there is ample evidence that this region is also involved in regulating aversive responses, but the exact role of the NAc and its subregions in regulating associative fear processing remains unclear. Here, we investigated the specific contribution of the NAcC and NAcS in regulating both fear expression and fear extinction in C57BL/6J mice. Using Arc expression as an indicator of neuronal activity, we first show that the NAcC is specifically active only in response to an associative fear cue during an expression test. In contrast, the NAcS is specifically active during fear extinction. We next inactivated each subregion using lidocaine and demonstrated that the NAcC is necessary for fear expression, but not for extinction learning or consolidation of extinction. In contrast, we demonstrate that the NAcS is necessary for the consolidation of extinction, but not fear expression or extinction learning. Further, inactivation of mGluR1 or ERK signaling specifically in the NAcS disrupted the consolidation of extinction but had no effect on fear expression or extinction learning itself. Our data provide the first evidence for the importance of the ERK/MAPK pathway as the underlying neural mechanism facilitating extinction consolidation within the NAcS. These findings suggest that the NAc subregions play dissociable roles in regulating fear recall and the consolidation of fear extinction, and potentially implicate them as critical regions within the canonical fear circuit.
calmness (<--> social interactions, safety)love, CARE, trust, thankfulness (past ... praise)
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minimal anger ≠ calmness
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...power-oxytocin
calmness ... or "warm and fuzzy"
satisfaction (past ... dopamine decreases)liking, enjoyment: a positive event (now)
dissatisfaction (past ... dopamine decreases)disgust, distress: a negative event (now)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447364/
Surviving in a world with hidden rewards and dangers requires choosing the appropriate behaviours. Recent discoveries indicate that the habenula plays a prominent part in such behavioural choice through its effects on neuromodulator systems, in particular the dopamine and serotonin systems. By inhibiting dopamine-releasing neurons, habenula activation leads to the suppression of motor behaviour when an animal fails to obtain a reward or anticipates an aversive outcome. Moreover, the habenula is involved in behavioural responses to pain, stress, anxiety, sleep and reward, and its dysfunction is associated with depression, schizophrenia and drug-induced psychosis. As a highly conserved structure in the brain, the habenula provides a fundamental mechanism for both survival and decision-making.
https://neurosciencenews.com/lateral...-reward-21337/
A tiny but important area in the middle of the brain acts as a switch that determines when an animal is willing to work for a reward and when it stops working, according to a study published Aug. 31 (2022) in the journal Current Biology.
https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/53113
Moreover, these animals possess a subpallial structure (Figure 2), the habenula-projecting globus pallidus (GPh), which has an essential role in selecting behaviours that are either rewarding and should be continued or are not rewarding and should be abandoned.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc...84952116303500
The convergence of afferents from the basal and the limbic system and the control of numerous neuromodulators through its efferents have also attracted a lot of attention in recent years resulting in the habenula being compared to a conductor of “an orchestra” modulating behavior, or to “a switchboard” selecting different action modules.
https://www.healthline.com/health-ne...cholism-040814
“A negative outcome could be something like a painful stimulus, or it could be some outcome that was worse than you expected. So, if you press a button on a vending machine and you’re expecting to get a candy bar and you don’t get it, then your lateral habenula neurons are probably activated. The habenula is important to associate that action with the lack of the outcome that you wanted so you can avoid it in the future.”
It is important to note that in monkeys that are performing behavioural tasks, the aversive stimulus-induced changes in LHb and dopamine neuron activity are transient and the background activity of LHb neurons and dopamine neurons is similar in appetitive and aversive blocks of trials (FIG. 5). Indeed, these monkeys do not show any signs of major depression. However, if the aversive stimuli are delivered repeatedly and for a long time, sensitization may occur in LHb neurons so that their background activity is continuously elevated and, consequently, the background activity of dopamine neurons is continuously reduced. This condition may account for the motor suppression that is associated with ‘learned helplessness’. Stress-induced activation of the LHb may also cause behavioural changes through alterations in the activity of serotonin neurons (FIG. 2c). For example, sustained uncontrollable stress can cause a lack of motivation to perform goal-directed actions (learned helplessness) and changes in serotonin transmission are thought to contribute to this behavioural change because stress activates serotonin neurons in the DRN and MRN and increases serotonin release in different brain regions. The LHb has robust projections to the DRN and MRN, which are the main source of serotonin neurons. Electrical stimulation of the LHb has been found to inhibit neurons in the DRN and MRN but both inhibitory and facilitatory effects on serotonin release have been reported. Nevertheless, it is possible that stress-induced activation of the LHb stimulates serotonin neurons in the DRN and MRN, resulting in serotonin release.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3447364/ (The habenula: from stress evasion to value-based decision-making)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc...0105112200120X
"Oxytocin promotes laughing and smiling"
excitement: reward (pleasure)
fear: punishment (pain)
happiness, euphoria = "sustained excitement" or hopefulness (depression = a lack of euphoria)
sadness, dysphoria = "sustained fear" or hopelessness
anger: enemy ---> dominance
whimper, roll over and play dead: enemy ---> submission
laughing: friend ---> dominance
crying: friend ---> submission
https://www.sciencedirect.com/scienc...22103116302359
"Laughter conveys status"
The problem is that these are only a few of the hormones identified
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Dual type(as per tcaudilllg)
Enneagram 5 (wings either 4 or 6)?
I'm constantly looking to align the real with the ideal.I've been more oriented toward being overly idealistic by expecting the real to match the ideal. My thinking side is dominent. The result is that sometimes I can be overly impersonal or self-centered in my approach, not being understanding of others in the process and simply thinking "you should do this" or "everyone should follor this rule"..."regardless of how they feel or where they're coming from"which just isn't a good attitude to have. It is a way, though, to give oneself an artificial sense of self-justification. LSE
Best description of functions:
http://socionicsstudy.blogspot.com/2...functions.html
Yes, but all of them are not directly linked to emotions. They regulate digestion, metabolism, respiration, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation etc.Originally Posted by Beautiful sky
Also, this thread is focused on neuromodulators rather than hormones.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32371303/ (Orbitofrontal, dorsal striatum, and habenula functional connectivity...)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbito...ortex#Function
"It has been suggested that the medial OFC is involved in making stimulus-reward associations and with the reinforcement of behavior, while the lateral OFC is involved in stimulus-outcome associations and the evaluation and possibly reversal of behavior. Activity in the lateral OFC is found, for example, when subjects encode new expectations about punishment and social reprisal."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinoid#Function
"The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead."
https://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/pu...ids-have-do-it
"Research into endocannabinoids provided insight into a brand new class of signaling molecules that seem to have a very broad spectrum of actions. They affect practically every cell type, tissue, and organ. The condition of our ECS also determines how we feel. Until this discovery, serotonin and endorphins were thought to be the “happy molecules”, known for their role in regulating and affecting emotional states. But the discovery of endocannabinoids revealed a new biochemical pathway to happiness. The name of the endocannabinoid anandamide itself (ananda is the Sanskrit word for “joy, bliss, happiness”) suggests its involvement in mood. Now research has also shown a strong connection between the serotonergic and endocannabinoid systems, pointing to a connection between the release of endocannabinoids and serotonin (Best and Regehr, 2008)."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandamide
"The role of the endocannabinoid system on behavior and mood is still being researched. Both the CB1 and CB2 receptors (the bonding site of anandamide) seem to play a role in the identification of positive and negative interpretation of environment and setting. In animal models, anandamide plays a role in the interpretation of stimulus; specifically, optimism and pessimism in the presence of an ambiguous cue."
"This binding relationship of anandamide and the CB1/CB2 seems to play a role in neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate."
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4449495/
"Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that mediated satisfaction, happiness and optimism."
Last edited by Petter; 04-23-2023 at 06:32 AM.
excitement: reward (pleasure)
fear: punishment (pain)
happiness, satisfaction, euphoria (feeling free, feeling energized): achievement, improvement, hopefulness
sadness, dissatisfaction, dysphoria (feeling trapped): a lack of achievement, a lack of improvement, hopelessness
calmness, "warm and fuzzy", love: someone causes pleasure or a lack of pain ---> care
anger, frustration, hate: someone causes pain or a lack of pleasure ---> defend, destroy
laughing, dominant posture: social dominance
crying, roll over and play dead: social submission
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4060712/
"The present study reveals a previously unidentified form of interaction between these two systems in the human brain, i.e., the role of OXT in the inhibitory regulation of 5-HT signaling, which could lead to novel therapeutic strategies for mental disorders."
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4677118/ (Neurobiological Interactions Between Stress and the Endocannabinoid System)
"One study has suggested that pharmacological blockade of the CB1 receptor in humans may directly increase cortisol levels ..."
Yes, and this is as much the cause for emotions as oil in your car's engine is the cause for it running. Chemicals do certain things, but they aren't the reason why you have perceptions phenomenologically.
Neurons are fickle. Electric fields are more reliable for information. | Picower Institute (mit.edu)
"Traveling" Brain Waves May Be Critical for Cognition - Scientific American
Researchers translate brain waves into scarily accurate images using Stable Diffusion AI | PC Gamer
https://science.howstuffworks.com/li.../laughter2.htm
Provine is among only a few people who are studying laughter much as an animal behaviorist might study a dog's bark or a bird's song. He believes that laughter, like the bird's song, functions as a kind of social signal. Other studies have confirmed that theory by proving that people are 30 times more likely to laugh in social settings than when they are alone (and without pseudo-social stimuli like television). Even nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, loses much of its oomph when taken in solitude, according to German psychologist Willibald Ruch.
https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/emotions/laughter5.htm
Laughter is triggered when we find something humorous. There are three traditional theories about what we find humorous:
The incongruity theory suggests that humor arises when logic and familiarity are replaced by things that don't normally go together. Researcher Thomas Veatch says a joke becomes funny when we expect one outcome and another happens. When a joke begins, our minds and bodies are already anticipating what's going to happen and how it's going to end. That anticipation takes the form of logical thought intertwined with emotion and is influenced by our past experiences and our thought processes. When the joke goes in an unexpected direction, our thoughts and emotions suddenly have to switch gears. We now have new emotions, backing up a different line of thought. In other words, we experience two sets of incompatible thoughts and emotions simultaneously. We experience this incongruity between the different parts of the joke as humorous.
The superiority theory comes into play when we laugh at jokes that focus on someone else's mistakes, stupidity or misfortune. We feel superior to this person, experience a certain detachment from the situation and so are able to laugh at it.
The relief theory is the basis for a device movie-makers have used effectively for a long time. In action films or thrillers where tension is high, the director uses comic relief at just the right times. He builds up the tension or suspense as much as possible and then breaks it down slightly with a side comment, enabling the viewer to relieve himself of pent-up emotion, just so the movie can build it up again! Similarly, an actual story or situation creates tension within us. As we try to cope with two sets of emotions and thoughts, we need a release and laughter is the way of cleansing our system of the built-up tension and incongruity. (According to Dr. Lisa Rosenberg, humor, especially dark humor, can help workers cope with stressful situations. "The act of producing humor, of making a joke, gives us a mental break and increases our objectivity in the face of overwhelming stress," she says.)
laughing <--> a way to declare socially and logically unacceptable behavior
crying <--> "I need help" or "you need help"
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/498281
A number of recent hypotheses have attempted to explain the ultimate evolutionary origins of laughter and humor. However, most of these have lacked breadth in their evolutionary frameworks while neglecting the empirical existence of two distinct types of laughter—Duchenne and non‐Duchenne—and the implications of this distinction for the evolution of laughter as a signal. Most of these hypotheses have also been proposed in relative isolation of each other and remain disjointed from the relevant empirical literature. Here we attempt to remedy these shortcomings through a synthesis of previous laughter and humor research followed by (i) a reevaluation of this research in light of theory and data from several relevant disciplines, and (ii) the proposal of a synthetic evolutionary framework that takes into account phylogeny and history as well as proximate mechanisms and adaptive significance. We consider laughter to have been a preadaptation that was gradually elaborated and co‐opted through both biological and cultural evolution. We hypothesize that Duchenne laughter became fully ritualized in early hominids between 4 and 2 mya as a medium for playful emotional contagion. This mechanism would have coupled the emotions of small hominid groups and promoted resource‐building social play during the fleeting periods of safety and satiation that characterized early bipedal life. We further postulate that a generalized class of nonserious social incongruity would have been a reliable indicator of such safe times and thereby came to be a potent distal elicitor of laughter and playful emotion. This class of stimuli had its origins in primate social play and was the foundation for formal human humor. Within this framework, Duchenne laughter and protohumor were well established in the hominid biobehavioral repertoire when more cognitively sophisticated traits evolved in the hominid line between 2 mya and the present. The prior existence of laughter and humor allowed them to be co‐opted for numerous novel functions, and it is from this process that non‐Duchenne laughter and the “dark side” of laughter emerged. This perspective organizes the diversified forms and functions that characterize laughter and humor today and clarifies when and how laughter and humor evolved during the course of human evolution.
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Humans and the great apes laugh so it is probably related to our big brains (and logic).
social play ---> bigger brains ---> more social play etc
https://www.psychologicalscience.org...rs-of-joy.html
It may seem like a strange response: to break down in tears when you are happy.
But now a group of psychologists say they have found the reason why, and that crying tears of joy may well be the body’s way of restoring “emotional equilibrium”.
The psychologists say that, by responding to an overwhelmingly positive emotion with a negative one, people are able to recover better from strong emotions.
Oriana Aragon, the lead author of the report which will be published in the journal Psychological Science, said: “People may be restoring emotional equilibrium with these expressions.
“They seem to take place when people are overwhelmed with strong positive emotions, and people who do this seem to recover better from those strong emotions.”
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...22.792580/full (Tears of Joy as an Emotional Expression of the Meaning of Life)
This article describes a research project in which a qualitative research was carried out consisting of 24 semi-structured interviews and a subsequent data analysis using the MAXQDA software in order to investigate a particular dimorphic emotional expression: tears of joy (TOJ). The working hypothesis is that TOJ are not only an atypical expression due to a “super joy,” or that they are only an attempt by the organism to self-regulate the excess of joyful emotion through the expression of the opposite emotion (sadness), but that it is an emotional experience in its own right—not entirely overlapping with joy—with a specific adaptive function. Through the interviews, conducted in a cross-cultural context (mainly in India and Japan), we explored the following possibility: what if the adaptive function of crying for joy were to signal, to those experiencing it, the meaning of their life; the most important direction given to their existence? The material collected provided positive support for this interpretation.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryinghttps://time.com/4254089/science-crying/
"Crying signals to yourself and other people that there’s some important problem that is at least temporarily beyond your ability to cope"
"Weeping is a behavior that induces empathy perhaps with the mediation of the mirror neurons network..."
1. laughing <--> logically unacceptable behavior
2. laughing <--> breaking social norms
Last edited by Petter; 04-30-2023 at 06:22 AM.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_norm
Christina Horne and Stefanie Mollborn have identified two broad categories of arguments for the emergence of norms:
Consequentialism: norms are created when an individual's behavior has consequences and externalities for other members of the group.
Relationalism: norms are created because people want to attract positive social reactions. In other words, norms do not necessarily contribute to the collective good.
I think this explanation is better than 'breaking social norms'. We laugh at funny cats and dogs, for example, and those cases are not related to social norms."The incongruity theory suggests that humor arises when logic and familiarity are replaced by things that don't normally go together."
https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/art...hy_do_we_laugh
It may seem impossible to study humor; but scientists have found ways, mostly through large surveys and fMRI research. For example, to find out what makes a joke funny, a German researcher named Willibald Ruch asked subjects a series of questions about hundreds of jokes and cartoons. Based on their answers, he grouped humor preferences into three types: “incongruity-resolution,” which involves “violating one’s expectations in novel ways;” “nonsense humor,” “which is funny only because it makes no sense;” and “sexual humor,” which is offensive or taboo. Although not everyone finds the same type of humor funny, the common thread in these joke types is that they all involve dealing with surprise and resolving the ensuing cognitive dissonance.
“What elicits laughter isn’t the content of the joke but the way our brain works through the conflict the joke elicits,” writes Weems.
Take for example an old Groucho Marx joke: “One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I don’t know.” Our brains will read the first sentence and be taken down a path imagining Grouch Marx on a safari in his pajamas, before we get the new image of the elephant actually inside his pajamas. That process of moving from one possible solution to the next involves a part of the brain called the anterior cingulate, or AC, which becomes more active when there are conflicting interpretations in the brain. The AC helps to quiet down the “louder” parts of the brain (associated with the expected response) to allow other quieter answers to emerge, and it’s particularly active during jokes. It helps us to figure out the novel solution, which, when resolved, gets incorporated into the brain and gives us that spike of dopamine. This is why we feel so good when we get a joke, and why jokes are not funny the second time around.
dopamine (mental alertness):
excitement (future)
enjoyment (now)
fear (future)
distress (now)
serotonin 2 (learning, memory, reflection):
satisfaction/happiness (past, possible future)
dissatisfaction/sadness (past, possible future)
acetylcholine/PSNS and noradrenaline/SNS (concentration, arousal):
interest
boredom
serotonin 1 (sensory, body, pleasure/pain):
relaxedness
tension, freezing/startle response ... or anger (the fight response)
https://www.webmd.com/brain/differen...norepinephrine
"A surge of norepinephrine can cause feelings of happiness and euphoria. However, a surge can also lead to panic attacks, raised blood pressure, and hyperactivity. A lack of norepinephrine can cause lethargy, fatigue, lack of focus, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and depression."
neurotransmitters 3.png
neurotransmitters 3 c.jpg
https://ccp.net.au/basic-emotions/
"There is general consensus among researchers that there are five basic emotions.
Anger, Fear, Sadness, Disgust & Enjoyment"
???
... and energy <--> feeling free, feeling uplifted ---> hopefulness/optimism and pleasure-seeking behaviornoradrenaline/SNS (concentration, arousal)
1. the incongruity theory (see post #141 and #142)
2. transgression (something forbidden) ... e.g. breaking social norms
3. the superiority theory ... this is probably correct
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032992/ (Dopamine in motivational control: rewarding, aversive, and alerting)
"The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) has a crucial role in motivational control – in learning what things in the world are good and bad, and in choosing actions to gain the good things and avoid the bad things."
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00042/full (Serotonergic Contributions to Human Brain Aggression Networks)
"Aggression is associated with dysregulation in a corticolimbic network. Specifically, a deficient regulation of the amygdala via prefrontal cortex (PFC) areas has been described as a risk factor for aggressive behavior. The PFC-amygdala system supports affective control and regulates aggressive impulses."
dopamine: mental alertness and motivational control
1. alert ---> the affiliation network is activated
2. alarmed ---> the aversion network is activated
serotonin: a) impulse control b) relaxedness vs. nervousness
1. positive nervousness ... giddy, excited
2. negative nervousness ... tense
acetylcholine/PSNS and noradrenaline/SNS: concentration, interest, arousal, energy
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irritation: alarmed, tense, low impulse control, low energy
anger: alarmed, tense, low impulse control, high energy
fear: alarmed, tense, high impulse control, high energy
euphoria: alert, excited, high impulse control, high energy
goal-directed behavior vs. apathy (=high energy vs. low energy)
high impulse control vs. low impulse control
relaxedness vs. nervousness
excitement vs. tension
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